CBSE Class 12 Economics Chapter 2 Money and Banking – Complete Notes
CBSE Class 12 Economics Money and Banking Notes – RBI, Credit Control & Formulas
Part A: Introductory Macroeconomics | Unit 2 (6 Marks Weightage)
CBSE Class 12 Economics – Money and Banking is an important unit in Introductory Macroeconomics. It explains the meaning and functions of money, the supply of money in an economy, how commercial banks create money through credit creation, and the important functions of the central bank.
In India, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) performs the functions of the central bank and plays a major role in regulating the banking system and controlling credit in the economy.
These notes explain the complete unit in simple and student-friendly language, with important definitions, examples, formulas and exam-oriented points.
Money and Banking se har saal 6 marks ke questions aate hain. Credit control tools (CRR, SLR, Repo Rate) yaad rakhein aur numerical practice zaroor karein!
1. What is Money?
Money is anything that is generally accepted as a means of payment for goods and services and for settling debts.
In simple words, money is something that people commonly accept in exchange for goods and services.
For example, when you purchase a book, you pay money to the seller. The seller accepts it because money can be used to make other purchases.
Money makes economic transactions easier because people do not have to exchange goods directly with one another.
2. Functions of Money
Money performs several important functions in an economy.
The major functions of money are:
- Medium of Exchange
- Unit of Account
- Store of Value
- Standard of Deferred Payments
2.1 Money as a Medium of Exchange
Money acts as an intermediary in the exchange of goods and services.
For example, suppose a student wants to buy a notebook. The student pays ₹100 to the shopkeeper and receives the notebook.
The student does not have to offer another good in exchange.
Therefore, money removes the difficulties associated with the barter system.
Barter System
Under the barter system, goods are exchanged directly for other goods.
For example:
Wheat → exchanged for → Clothes
The major difficulty is the requirement of a double coincidence of wants.
Money solves this problem because everyone accepts money as a medium of exchange.
2.2 Money as a Unit of Account
Money provides a common measure for expressing the value of different goods and services.
For example:
- Book = ₹200
- Pen = ₹20
- School bag = ₹800
The prices of all these goods are expressed in terms of money.
Therefore, money acts as a unit of account.
2.3 Money as a Store of Value
Money allows people to store their purchasing power for future use.
For example, if a person earns ₹50,000 today and does not spend the entire amount, the remaining money can generally be used for purchases in the future.
Thus, money acts as a store of value.
2.4 Money as a Standard of Deferred Payments
Money facilitates payments that are made in the future.
For example, if a person borrows ₹1,00,000 today and agrees to repay it after one year, the repayment can be expressed in monetary terms.
Therefore, money acts as a standard of deferred payments.
3. Supply of Money
Money supply refers to the total stock of money held by the public at a particular point of time.
For the CBSE Class 12 framework, money supply is commonly represented by:
Money Supply = Currency held by the public + Net demand deposits held by commercial banks
In symbols:
M = C + D
Where:
- M = Money Supply
- C = Currency held by the public
- D = Net demand deposits held by commercial banks
3.1 Currency Held by the Public
Currency held by the public includes currency notes and coins held by individuals and businesses outside banks.
For example, if people have ₹1,000 in cash with them, that amount forms part of the currency held by the public.
Important Point
Currency kept by the public is included in the money supply.
Currency kept in the vaults of banks is not treated as currency held by the public.
4. Net Demand Deposits Held by Commercial Banks
People and businesses keep money in bank accounts. Some deposits can be withdrawn on demand and can be used to make payments.
Such deposits are known as demand deposits.
Demand deposits are included in the money supply because they can be used for making payments through:
- Cheques
- Debit cards
- Electronic transfers
- Other banking payment mechanisms
The term net demand deposits is used in the standard CBSE framework for the relevant demand deposits held with commercial banks.
5. Important Point About Money Supply
Students should remember:
Money supply includes currency held by the public and relevant demand deposits held with commercial banks.
Therefore:
Money Supply = Currency held by the public + Net Demand Deposits
Example
Suppose:
Currency held by the public = ₹500 crore
Net demand deposits = ₹1,500 crore
Then:
Money Supply = ₹500 crore + ₹1,500 crore
Money Supply = ₹2,000 crore
6. Money Creation by Commercial Banks
Commercial banks do not merely keep deposits safely. They also provide loans and create deposits in the process.
This process is known as money creation or credit creation by commercial banks.
Basic Idea
When a bank receives deposits, it keeps a certain portion as reserves and lends the remaining amount.
The loan given by the bank is generally deposited into a bank account. This deposit can again become the basis for further lending.
Thus, the banking system can create multiple deposits from an initial deposit.
7. Example of Money Creation
Suppose a person deposits ₹1,000 in a commercial bank.
Assume the required reserve ratio is 20%.
The bank keeps:
20% of ₹1,000 = ₹200
The remaining:
₹1,000 − ₹200 = ₹800
can be used for lending, subject to the applicable banking conditions.
Suppose the borrower deposits the ₹800 in a bank. The banking system can then retain 20% and lend the remaining amount.
The process can continue through successive rounds.
Deposit Creation Multiplier
In the simplified textbook model:
Money Multiplier = 1 / Reserve Ratio
If reserve ratio = 20% or 0.20:
Money Multiplier = 1 / 0.20 = 5
Therefore, an initial deposit of ₹1,000 can support total deposit creation of up to:
₹1,000 × 5 = ₹5,000
This is a simplified theoretical illustration. Actual money creation depends on several factors, including banks' lending behaviour and the public's preference for holding cash.
8. Central Bank
The central bank is the apex monetary institution of a country.
In India, the central bank is the:
Reserve Bank of India (RBI)
The RBI performs important functions related to:
- Currency
- Banking
- Government banking
- Credit control
- Monetary management
- Foreign exchange management
The central bank differs from commercial banks because it primarily performs functions for the banking system and the economy as a whole, rather than operating mainly to accept deposits and provide loans to the general public.
9. Functions of the Central Bank
The major functions of the central bank are:
- Bank of Issue
- Government's Bank
- Banker's Bank
- Controller of Credit
10. Central Bank as the Bank of Issue
The central bank has the authority to issue currency notes in the country, subject to the legal framework governing currency issue.
In India, the Reserve Bank of India issues currency notes, while the ₹1 note and coins are issued by the Government of India.
Therefore, the RBI has an important role as the Bank of Issue.
Main Purpose
The centralised issue of currency helps maintain uniformity and confidence in the monetary system.
11. Central Bank as Government's Bank
The central bank acts as a banker, agent and financial adviser to the government.
It performs functions such as:
- Maintaining government accounts
- Receiving payments on behalf of the government
- Making payments on behalf of the government
- Managing government borrowing and public debt
- Providing financial advice to the government
Therefore, the central bank is called the Government's Bank.
12. Central Bank as Banker's Bank
The central bank acts as a banker's bank because it provides banking facilities and support to commercial banks.
It may:
- Maintain reserves of commercial banks
- Provide loans to commercial banks
- Act as a lender of last resort
- Facilitate clearing and settlement between banks
Lender of Last Resort
When a commercial bank faces a temporary shortage of funds and cannot obtain sufficient funds from other sources, the central bank can provide assistance under appropriate conditions.
Therefore, the central bank is known as the lender of last resort.
13. Controller of Credit
One of the most important functions of the central bank is to control the availability and cost of credit in the economy.
The RBI uses various monetary policy instruments to influence credit creation by commercial banks.
The important instruments covered in this unit include:
- Bank Rate
- Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR)
- Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR)
- Repo Rate
- Reverse Repo Rate
- Open Market Operations
- Margin Requirement
14. Bank Rate
The Bank Rate is the rate at which the central bank lends to commercial banks under the relevant lending arrangements.
Changes in the bank rate can influence the cost of borrowing for commercial banks and, consequently, the availability of credit in the economy.
When Bank Rate Increases
Borrowing from the central bank becomes more expensive.
Commercial banks may increase lending rates.
Loans become relatively expensive.
Credit demand may decrease.
This can help reduce excess credit in the economy.
When Bank Rate Decreases
Borrowing may become cheaper.
Commercial banks may reduce lending rates.
Credit can become more easily available.
This can encourage borrowing and investment.
15. Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR)
Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) is the percentage of a commercial bank's deposits that it is required to keep as cash reserves with the Reserve Bank of India.
Example
Suppose a bank has deposits of ₹100 crore and the CRR is 5%.
Required reserve:
5% of ₹100 crore = ₹5 crore
The remaining funds are available to the bank for its other operations, subject to applicable regulations.
Effect of Increase in CRR
If CRR increases:
- Banks have to keep more reserves with the RBI.
- Less money is available for lending.
- Credit creation may decrease.
- Money supply may be restricted.
Effect of Decrease in CRR
If CRR decreases:
- Banks need to keep fewer reserves.
- More funds may become available for lending.
- Credit creation may increase.
Easy Memory Trick
CRR ↑ → Lending Capacity ↓
CRR ↓ → Lending Capacity ↑
16. Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR)
Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) refers to the minimum proportion of a bank's net demand and time liabilities that it is required to maintain in liquid assets as prescribed by the RBI.
These assets may include:
- Cash
- Gold
- Approved securities
SLR helps ensure that banks maintain adequate liquidity.
Effect of Increase in SLR
When SLR is increased:
- Banks have to maintain a larger proportion of funds in liquid assets.
- Funds available for lending may decrease.
- Credit creation may be restricted.
Effect of Decrease in SLR
When SLR is decreased:
- Banks may have more funds available for lending.
- Credit creation may increase.
Easy Memory Trick
SLR ↑ → Lending Capacity ↓
SLR ↓ → Lending Capacity ↑
17. Repo Rate
The Repo Rate is the rate at which the RBI lends money to commercial banks against eligible securities under a repurchase agreement.
Repo rate is an important monetary policy instrument.
When Repo Rate Increases
Borrowing from the RBI becomes more expensive.
Commercial banks may raise their lending rates.
Borrowing may decline.
Credit growth may slow down.
When Repo Rate Decreases
Borrowing from the RBI becomes relatively cheaper.
Banks may have greater access to funds.
Credit conditions can become easier.
Borrowing and investment may increase.
Easy Memory Trick
Repo Rate ↑ → Cost of borrowing ↑ → Credit generally ↓
Repo Rate ↓ → Cost of borrowing ↓ → Credit generally ↑
18. Reverse Repo Rate
The Reverse Repo Rate is the rate at which the RBI borrows money from commercial banks under the relevant liquidity-management arrangement.
When banks lend funds to the RBI, they earn interest at the applicable reverse repo rate.
When Reverse Repo Rate Increases
Banks may find it more attractive to keep funds with the RBI.
Funds available with banks for lending may decrease.
This can help reduce liquidity in the economy.
When Reverse Repo Rate Decreases
The incentive for banks to park funds with the RBI may decrease.
Banks may prefer to use more funds for lending or other purposes.
This can support liquidity.
Easy Memory Trick
Reverse Repo Rate ↑ → Banks may park more funds with RBI
Reverse Repo Rate ↓ → Banks may prefer to lend/use more funds
19. Repo Rate vs Reverse Repo Rate
| Basis | Repo Rate | Reverse Repo Rate |
|---|---|---|
| Meaning | Rate at which RBI lends to banks under repo arrangements | Rate at which RBI borrows from banks under reverse repo arrangements |
| Flow of funds | RBI → Commercial Banks | Commercial Banks → RBI |
| Increase generally | Makes borrowing costlier | Can encourage banks to park funds with RBI |
| Main effect | Helps influence borrowing and credit conditions | Helps influence liquidity |
20. Open Market Operations
Open Market Operations (OMO) refer to the purchase and sale of government securities by the central bank in the open market.
It is an important quantitative method of credit control.
When RBI Sells Government Securities
Suppose the RBI sells government securities to commercial banks and other financial participants.
They pay money to the RBI.
As a result, liquidity in the banking system can decrease.
Therefore:
Sale of Securities → Liquidity ↓ → Credit Creation ↓
When RBI Purchases Government Securities
When the RBI purchases government securities, it pays money into the financial system.
Liquidity increases.
Therefore:
Purchase of Securities → Liquidity ↑ → Credit Creation ↑
21. Margin Requirement
Margin requirement is a method of selective credit control.
It refers to the difference between the value of the security offered by the borrower and the amount of loan granted against that security.
Formula
Margin = Value of Security − Loan Amount
Example
Suppose a borrower offers securities worth:
₹1,00,000
The bank gives a loan of:
₹70,000
Therefore:
Margin = ₹1,00,000 − ₹70,000
Margin = ₹30,000
The margin requirement is therefore 30% of the value of the security.
How Does Margin Requirement Control Credit?
Suppose the RBI wants to reduce excessive borrowing against a particular type of security.
It may increase the margin requirement.
For example:
Security value = ₹1,00,000
If margin = 20%:
Loan = ₹80,000
If margin is increased to 40%:
Loan = ₹60,000
Therefore, an increase in margin requirement reduces the amount that banks can lend against a given security.
Easy Memory Trick
Margin Requirement ↑ → Loan against security ↓
Margin Requirement ↓ → Loan against security ↑
22. Quantitative and Qualitative Methods of Credit Control
The instruments used by the central bank to control credit can broadly be classified into quantitative and qualitative methods.
Quantitative Methods
These influence the overall volume of credit in the economy.
Examples:
- Bank Rate
- CRR
- SLR
- Repo Rate
- Reverse Repo Rate
- Open Market Operations
Qualitative Method
These influence the direction or allocation of credit.
Example:
- Margin Requirement
"Quantitative = Quantity control (overall credit)"
"Qualitative = Quality control (specific purpose credit)"
23. Expansionary and Contractionary Credit Policy
The central bank may use credit-control measures according to economic conditions.
Expansionary Credit Policy
When the economy requires greater availability of credit, the central bank may adopt measures that encourage lending.
For example:
- Reduction in CRR
- Reduction in SLR
- Reduction in repo rate
- Purchase of government securities
The broad objective is to increase liquidity and encourage economic activity.
Contractionary Credit Policy
When excessive liquidity or credit expansion needs to be controlled, the central bank may adopt measures that restrict credit.
For example:
- Increase in CRR
- Increase in SLR
- Increase in repo rate
- Sale of government securities
- Increase in margin requirement for selected credit
The broad objective is to reduce excessive credit availability and liquidity.
24. Difference Between Commercial Bank and Central Bank
| Basis | Commercial Bank | Central Bank |
|---|---|---|
| Main objective | Provides banking services and credit | Regulates monetary and banking system |
| Customers | General public, businesses and institutions | Government and banking system |
| Currency issue | Does not issue currency | Has authority over currency issue as prescribed by law |
| Credit creation | Creates deposits through lending | Controls overall credit conditions |
| Government banking | May provide services to government | Acts as government's bank |
| Banker's bank | No | Yes |
| Lender of last resort | No | Yes |
25. Important Relationships to Remember
Money Supply
Money Supply = Currency held by the public + Net Demand Deposits
Money Multiplier
Money Multiplier = 1 / Reserve Ratio
Margin
Margin = Value of Security − Loan Amount
Credit Control
CRR ↑ → Credit Creation ↓
CRR ↓ → Credit Creation ↑
SLR ↑ → Credit Creation ↓
SLR ↓ → Credit Creation ↑
Repo Rate ↑ → Cost of Borrowing ↑ → Credit generally ↓
Repo Rate ↓ → Cost of Borrowing ↓ → Credit generally ↑
Reverse Repo Rate ↑ → Banks may park more funds with RBI
OMO Sale → Liquidity ↓
OMO Purchase → Liquidity ↑
Margin Requirement ↑ → Loan against security ↓
26. Quick Revision Table
| Topic | Easy Meaning |
|---|---|
| Money | Generally accepted means of payment |
| Medium of Exchange | Money facilitates buying and selling |
| Unit of Account | Money measures the value of goods and services |
| Store of Value | Money allows purchasing power to be saved for future |
| Deferred Payment | Money facilitates future payments |
| Money Supply | Currency with public + relevant demand deposits |
| Commercial Bank | Accepts deposits and provides loans |
| Money Creation | Creation of deposits through the lending process |
| Central Bank | Apex monetary and banking institution |
| Bank of Issue | Central bank's currency issue function |
| Government's Bank | Central bank provides banking services to government |
| Banker's Bank | Central bank provides banking support to commercial banks |
| CRR | Required cash reserve with RBI |
| SLR | Required proportion maintained in liquid assets |
| Repo Rate | Rate at which RBI lends to banks under repo arrangements |
| Reverse Repo Rate | Rate at which RBI borrows from banks under reverse repo arrangements |
| OMO | Purchase and sale of government securities |
| Margin Requirement | Difference between security value and loan amount |
27. Solved Numerical Questions
Numerical 1: Calculate Money Supply
Question: Currency held by the public is ₹500 crore and net demand deposits are ₹1,500 crore. Calculate money supply.
Solution:
Money Supply = Currency held by the public + Net Demand Deposits
Money Supply = 500 + 1,500
Money Supply = ₹2,000 crore
Numerical 2: Calculate Money Multiplier
Question: If the reserve ratio is 10%, calculate the money multiplier.
Solution:
Money Multiplier = 1 / Reserve Ratio
Money Multiplier = 1 / 0.10
Money Multiplier = 10
Numerical 3: Calculate Total Deposit Creation
Question: Initial deposit is ₹1,000 and reserve ratio is 20%. Calculate total deposit creation.
Solution:
Money Multiplier = 1 / 0.20 = 5
Total Deposit Creation = Initial Deposit × Money Multiplier
Total Deposit Creation = 1,000 × 5
Total Deposit Creation = ₹5,000
Numerical 4: Calculate Margin
Question: A borrower offers security worth ₹1,00,000 and the bank grants a loan of ₹70,000. Calculate the margin.
Solution:
Margin = Value of Security − Loan Amount
Margin = 1,00,000 − 70,000
Margin = ₹30,000
Numerical 5: Calculate CRR Reserve
Question: A bank has total deposits of ₹200 crore. If CRR is 4%, calculate the required reserve.
Solution:
Required Reserve = Deposits × CRR
Required Reserve = 200 × 4%
Required Reserve = 200 × 0.04
Required Reserve = ₹8 crore
Exam se pehle sirf formula table dekh lein! 90% numerical questions inhi formulas se solve hote hain. Table ko screenshot le kar phone me save kar lein!
28. Important Exam-Oriented Questions
Very Short Answer Questions (1 Mark)
Q1. What is money?
Money is anything that is generally accepted as a means of payment for goods and services and settlement of debts.
Q2. What is CRR?
CRR is the percentage of deposits that commercial banks are required to maintain as cash reserves with the RBI.
Q3. What is SLR?
SLR is the minimum proportion of net demand and time liabilities that a bank is required to maintain in specified liquid assets.
Q4. What is repo rate?
Repo rate is the rate at which the RBI lends money to commercial banks against eligible securities under a repurchase agreement.
Q5. What are Open Market Operations?
OMOs refer to the purchase and sale of government securities by the central bank in the open market.
29. Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
Q1. What is money in economics?
Money is anything that is generally accepted as a means of payment for goods and services and settlement of debts.
Q2. What are the four main functions of money?
The four main functions are:
- Medium of exchange
- Unit of account
- Store of value
- Standard of deferred payments
Q3. What is money supply?
Money supply refers to the total stock of money held by the public at a particular point of time.
Q4. What is the formula for money supply?
Money Supply = Currency held by the public + Net Demand Deposits
Q5. How do commercial banks create money?
Commercial banks create money through the process of accepting deposits and providing loans. The loans can generate further deposits in the banking system.
Q6. What is the role of the RBI as a central bank?
The RBI acts as the Bank of Issue, Government's Bank, Banker's Bank and Controller of Credit.
Q7. What happens when CRR increases?
An increase in CRR reduces the funds that banks can use for lending, thereby tending to reduce credit creation.
Q8. What happens when the repo rate increases?
An increase in repo rate generally makes borrowing from the RBI more expensive, which can make credit conditions tighter.
Q9. What are Open Market Operations?
Open Market Operations are the purchase and sale of government securities by the central bank.
Q10. What is margin requirement?
Margin requirement is the difference between the value of security offered by a borrower and the loan granted against that security.
30. CBSE Class 12 Economics – Last-Minute Revision
Before the examination, remember these key points:
Money → Medium of Exchange + Unit of Account + Store of Value + Standard of Deferred Payments
Money Supply → Currency held by Public + Net Demand Deposits
Commercial Banks → Deposits + Loans → Deposit/Money Creation
Central Bank → Bank of Issue + Government's Bank + Banker's Bank + Controller of Credit
CRR → Cash reserve requirement
SLR → Liquid asset requirement
Repo Rate → RBI lends to banks
Reverse Repo Rate → RBI borrows from banks
OMO → Purchase/Sale of Government Securities
Margin Requirement → Controls loans against specified securities
Conclusion
Money and Banking is a fundamental unit of CBSE Class 12 Economics because it explains how money functions in an economy and how the banking system influences economic activity.
Students should focus especially on the functions of money, money supply, money creation by commercial banks, functions of the RBI, and instruments of credit control.
The most effective way to prepare this chapter is to understand the logic behind each concept rather than simply memorising definitions.
For quick revision, remember:
Money → Banks → Credit Creation → Central Bank → Credit Control
Once these relationships are clear, the entire unit becomes much easier to understand and answer in the CBSE examination.
Study the concepts, learn the key relationships, and practise application-based questions for better preparation.
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